The Social Significance of the Modern Drama M.A English 4th

A DOLL'S HOUSE

IN "A Doll's House" Ibsen returns to the subject so vital to him,--the Social Lie and Duty,--this time as manifesting themselves in the sacred institution of the home and in the position of woman in her gilded cage.
Nora is the beloved, adored wife of Torvald Helmer. He is an admirable man, rigidly honest, of high moral ideals, and passionately devoted to his wife and children. In short, a good man and an enviable husband. Almost every mother would be proud of such a match for her daughter, and the latter would consider herself fortunate to become the wife of such a man.
Nora, too, considers herself fortunate. Indeed, she worships her husband, believes in him implicitly, and is sure that if ever her safety should be menaced, Torvald, her idol, her god, would perform the miracle.
When a woman loves as Nora does, nothing else matters; least of all, social, legal or moral considerations. Therefore, when her husband's life is threatened, it is no effort, it is joy for Nora to forge her father's name to a note and borrow 800 cronen on it, in order to take her sick husband to Italy.
In her eagerness to serve her husband, and in perfect innocence of the legal aspect of her act, she does not give the matter much thought, except for her anxiety to shield him from any emergency that may call upon him to perform the miracle in her behalf. She works hard, and saves every penny of her pin-money to pay back the amount she borrowed on the forged check.
Nora is light-hearted and gay, apparently without depth. Who, indeed, would expect depth of a doll, a "squirrel," a song-bird? Her purpose in life is to be happy for her husband's sake, for the sake of the children; to sing, dance, and play with them. Besides, is she not shielded, protected, and cared for? Who, then, would suspect Nora of depth? But already in the opening scene, when Torvald inquires what his precious "squirrel" wants for a Christmas present, Nora quickly asks him for money. Is it to buy macaroons or finery? In her talk with Mrs. Linden, Nora reveals her inner self, and forecasts the inevitable debacle of her doll's house.
After telling her friend how she had saved her husband, Nora says: "When Torvald gave me money for clothes and so on, I never used more than half of it; I always bought the simplest things. . . . Torvald never noticed anything. But it was often very hard, Christina dear. For it's nice to be beautifully dressed. Now, isn't it? . . . Well, and besides that, I made money in other ways. Last winter I was so lucky--I got a heap of copying to do. I shut myself up every evening and wrote far into the night. Oh, sometimes I was so tired, so tired. And yet it was splendid to work in that way and earn money. I almost felt as if I was a man."
Down deep in the consciousness of Nora there evidently slumbers personality and character, which could come into full bloom only through a great miracle--not the kind Nora hopes for, but a miracle just the same.
Nora had borrowed the money from Nils Krogstad, a man with a shady past in the eyes of the community and of the righteous moralist, Torvald Helmer. So long as Krogstad is allowed the little breathing space a Christian people grants to him who has once broken its laws, he is reasonably human. He does not molest Nora. But when Helmer becomes director of the bank in which Krogstad is employed, and threatens the man with dismissal, Krogstad naturally fights back. For as he says to Nora: "If need be, I shall fight as though for my life to keep my little place in the bank. . . . It's not only for the money: that matters least to me. It's something else. Well, I'd better make a clean breast of it. Of course you know, like every one else, that some years ago I--got into trouble. . . . The matter never came into court; but from that moment all paths were barred to me. Then I took up the business you know about. I was obliged to grasp at something; and I don't think I've been one of the worst. But now I must clear out of it all. My sons are growing up; for their sake I must try to win back as much respectability as I can. This place in the bank was the first step, and now your husband wants to kick me off the ladder, back into the mire. Mrs. Helmer, you evidently have no idea what you have really done. But I can assure you that it was nothing more and nothing worse that made me an outcast from society. . . . But this I may tell you, that if I'm flung into the gutter a second time, you shall keep me company."
Even when Nora is confronted with this awful threat, she does not fear for herself, only for Torvald,--so good, so true, who has such an aversion to debts, but who loves her so devotedly that for her sake he would take the blame upon himself. But this must never be. Nora, too, begins a fight for life, for her husband's life and that of her children. Did not Helmer tell her that the very presence of a criminal likeKrogstad poisons the children? And is she not a criminal?
Torvald Helmer assures her, in his male conceit, that "early corruption generally comes from the mother's side, but of course the father's influence may act in the same way. And this Krogstad has been poisoning his own children for years past by a life of lies and hypocrisy--that's why I call him morally ruined."
Poor Nora, who cannot understand why a daughter has no right to spare her dying father anxiety, or why a wife has no right to save her husband's life, is surely not aware of the true character of her idol. But gradually the veil is lifted. At first, when in reply to her desperate pleading for Krogstad, her husband discloses the true reason for wanting to get rid of him: "The fact is, he was a college chum of mine--there was one of those rash friendships between us that one so often repents later. I don't mind confessing it--he calls me by my Christian name; and he insists on doing it even when others are present. He delights in putting on airs of familiarity--Torvald here, Torvald there! I assure you it's most painful to me. He would make my position at the bank perfectly unendurable."
And then again when the final blow comes. For forty-eight hours Nora battles for her ideal, never doubting Torvald for a moment. Indeed, so absolutely sure is she of her strong oak, her lord, her god, that she would rather kill herself than have him take the blame for her act. The end comes, and with it the doll's house tumbles down, and Nora discards her doll's dress--she sheds her skin, as it were. Torvald Helmerproves himself a petty Philistine, a bully and a coward, as so many good husbands when they throw off their respectable cloak.
Helmer's rage over Nora's crime subsides the moment the danger of publicity is averted--proving that Helmer, like many a moralist, is not so much incensed at Nora's offense as by the fear of being found out. Not so Nora. Finding out is her salvation. It is then that she realizes how much she has been wronged, that she is only a plaything, a doll to Helmer. In her disillusionment she says, "You have never loved me. You only thought it amusing to be in love with me."
Helmer. Why, Nora, what a thing to say!Nora. Yes, it is so, Torvald. While I was at home with father he used to tell me all his opinions and I held the same opinions. If I had others I concealed them, because he would not have liked it. He used to call me his doll child, and play with me as I played with my dolls. Then I came to live in your house-- . . . I mean I passed from father's hands into yours. You settled everything according to your taste; and I got the same tastes as you; or I pretended to--I don't know which--both ways perhaps. When I look back on it now, I seem to have been living here like a beggar, from hand to mouth. I lived by performing tricks for you, Torvald. But you would have it so. You and father have done me a great wrong. It's your fault that my life has been wasted. . . .Helmer. It's exasperating! Can you forsake your holiest duties in this way?Nora. What do you call my holiest duties?Helmer. Do you ask me that? Your duties to your husband and children.Nora. I have other duties equally sacred.Helmer. Impossible! What duties do you mean?Nora. My duties toward myself.Helmer. Before all else you are a wife and a mother.Nora. That I no longer believe. I think that before all else I am a human being, just as much as you are--or, at least, I will try to become one. I know that most people agree with you, Torvald, and that they say so in books. But henceforth I can't be satisfied with what most people say, and what is in books. I must think things out for myself and try to get clear about them. . . . I had been living here these eight years with a strange man, and had borne him three children--Oh! I can't bear to think of it--I could tear myself to pieces!. . . . I can't spend the night in a strange man's house.Is there anything more degrading to woman than to live with a stranger, and bear him children? Yet, the lie of the marriage institution decrees that she shall continue to do so, and the social conception of duty insists that for the sake of that lie she need be nothing else than a plaything, a doll, a nonentity.
When Nora closes behind her the door of her doll's house, she opens wide the gate of life for woman, and proclaims the revolutionary message that only perfect freedom and communion make a true bond between man and woman, meeting in the open, without lies, without shame, free from the bondage of duty.

Philip Sidney: "An Apology for Poetry" M.A English 2nd

Philip Sidney: "An Apology for Poetry" (2)

In the Apology for Poetry, there are many references to classical books and sophisticated words. Such references are not for studying. 

The writer, Philip Sidney, repeats himself; every three or more paragraphs, there is one idea.

The selections represent the main ideas in the essay. These ideas are very simple. 

The First Section:

Inn this section, Sidney tries to define poetry (what is poetry and who is the poet).

1. He says the poetry is the teacher of all sciences. All the learning of the West in the Renaissance went back to the Greek civilization where even philosophical and scientific books were written in rhyme. So, poetry is the source of all knowledge.
2. Poetry can be found among all civilization. There is no civilization that does not know poetry in a form or another.
3. The Romans use the same word for both the "poet" and the "prophet". The word used for the poet in Latin means "Prophet". which shows his importance. Moreover, the Greek word for the poet means "Creator". This shows that poetry is not something trivial; it is very importance.

• Besides, the Roman and Greek philosophers and scientists wrote in rhyme.

Then, Sidney talks about the definition of poetry with reference to Aristotle who says that poetry "is the mimetic, or imitative, use of language". The reference to Aristotle shows that this man was still influential. 

An important aim of this course is to try to trace the development of criticism. One important point is what the similarities are between Aristotle and Sidney. The first similarity is their definition.

Poetry, according  to Sidney, is "a representing, counterfeiting, or figuring forth - to speak metaphorically, a speaking picture - with this end, to teach and delight."

Sidney gives several words for the same concept. He has this habit of giving many synonyms for the same word as a kind of explaining. 

• "This end" means the aim, goal or purpose.
• "Teach and delight" are two important words. Both of these concepts counterbalance each other. According to Sidney, a good literary work should have a message and should also delight. A work may teach but not delight, so this is not poetry. Likewise, if a poem delights, but does not teach, it will not be a real poem.

After that, Sidney moves from defining poetry to dividing it into many parts and categories. In the rest of the section, Sidney simply says that, according to him, there are three kinds of poetry;

1. The first kind is religious. That is, the Old Testament and the New Testament are poetry. Also, the psalms of David are very poetic in nature.
2. The second is philosophical. It is not literature, but is written in a literary form to make it easier to memorize. This is not what Sidney looks for. Any kind of knowledge can be written in verse, but this does not make it poetry. Poetry is meant to teach and to delight, but religious and philosophical poetry does not delight.
3. The third is imitative poetry or true and creative poetry.

Sidney means to define and classify. He wants to be very clear about what he is going to discuss to avoid confusion. 

The second step in the essay is marking the territory (this is something to do before starting an argument). When we deal with a text. we should look at the ideas and the form (or the logical development). There is a very strong argument here. The way he writes in is very organized and well-planned. Sidney does not write randomly. The essay is very well studied and written.

After dividing poetry into "religious, philosophical, and imitative poetry", Sidney divides creative poetry into sub-divisions.

P.332 "These be subdivided ... "

Here, Sidney divides poetry into several kinds. The difference between tragic and comic poetry is in content while the difference between lyric and iambic poetry is in form. Sidney wants to say that not all poets who write in verse are poets. One can writes a text that does not rhyme, but it is still poetical. That is, not all verse is poetry, and not all poetry is verse.

Sidney is not a light writer. He is an All Rounder Man who studies the classical in their languages. He highlights an idea in the passage and then elaborates it more. He gives a definition in a paragraph and then gives more examples for it in the following paragraphs. Then, he gives another idea with more examples until he becomes sure that the reader understands him well. Sidney tries to establish the importance and excellence of poetry. Although the essay is very long, Sidney never loses the main purpose. He uses many tactics to defend poetry because he wants to make sure that the reader understands his point.

The Second Section:

Sidney returns once again to the main purpose. After the section that defines poetry, there is one about the comparison between poetry and philosophy and between poetry and history. He gives a description of history and its characteristics with a description of philosophy and its characteristics. Then, he makes a comparison between them and poetry.

Sidney objection against philosophy is that it is exclusive, not for the general masses. Philosophy appeals to the educated and is read by people who already know it. So, it is not useful. It is for very well-educated people. It is a discipline that is very difficult to understand. In comparison, Poetry teaches the same ideas of philosophy but in  a concrete way. Through it, you can learn about truth, honesty etc. which is available in poetry, but in a simple form and with concrete examples. Here, Sidney establishes his defense.

History, according to Sidney, is not very creative. It gives us what has already happened without any imagination. History is very specific while poetry is very open. It does not show any universal truth. It is very difficult to extract a value from a historical fact. Poetry takes facts and adds imagination to them. The poet does not tell what has happened but what might have happened. Thus, poetry is richer and more beneficial to people because it is more effective in teaching moral lessons. Because facts are represented in a more pleasurable way, they have a deep influence on people. Sidney says that "Poetry is the noblest of all sciences."

P.337 " ... For conclusion, I say the philosopher ... " The style may be little bit difficult, but the ideas are straightforward.

P.339 "So then the best of the historian .... " 

The best  part of history is the subject matter or the raw materials of poetry. 

"Bound to recite" means to tell". Poetry, with its imitation, takes any historical matter and makes it its own. 

Dante is the author of The Divine Comedy which is a very famous poem from the middle Ages. Dante is the Shakespeare of Italy. It is about some people who go to the underworld which is divided into several layers. In each layer, there is a kind of bad people some of whom are from his age like corrupted politicians. There are also characters from history like Julius Caesar and Cleopatra. They go through all these layers and return again to the world. This is what is meant by "from his heaven to his hell", i.e. from the extreme to the extreme.

The Third Section:

After the comparison between history and poetry and between philosophy and poetry, Sidney turns to the definition of the different genres of poetry. Sidney uses the same technique and methodology used by Aristotle. 

P. 346 "Sith then poetry ... "

All civilizations knows poetry. Here, he sums up an idea he has just introduced at the very beginning of the essay. The essay is long, but one of the techniques Sidney uses to connect his essay is by rementioning the ideas he present at the very beginning. This is a different style of writing an essay. This was an art form and a literary skill at this time. People read essays not for the content, but also for the style. It was a kind of entertainment. Sidney says that the name "maker" is very suitable for the poet. That is, the poet makes a matter out of a conceit "story", and not a story out of a matter. If one is  a poet, he will not need any other things. Poetry comes from his heart and imagination. 

The Fourth Section:

Sidney moves to the refutation of the different accusations against poetry.

P.348 "'Now then ..."

Sidney depends on Aristotle here. He refers to both of Aristotle and Plato, but the way he looks at each one of them is different. He mentions Aristotle to agree with, but mentions Plato to refute him. Aristotle is mentioned to support as an evidence.

There are four accusations against poetry mentioned in The School of Abuse.

1. The first is that poetry is useless and so is a waste of time.
2. The second is that poetry is the mother of lies.
3. The third is that poetry has a corrupting influence.
4. The fourth is that Plato had banished poets from his ideal city.

Sidney answers the four objections

1. First, poetry is not something to waste our time. It gives us virtue. He already answers this in the previous sections where he makes the comparison. This is considered an answer for this accusation. Poetry is deeper and more accessible. It is in the middle between philosophy and history. He adds ideas to history and facts to philosophy.
2. Concerning the second accusation, Sidney has a very simple answer. The poet cannot be a liar because he does not pretend to say facts. He does not say he gives real stories. He does not pretend to say truth in the first place. Yet, the physicians lies because if he says that someone has a weak heart, one has to believe him because he has no option. On the other hand, believing poetry is optional because the poet does not force any one to believe him
3. Regarding to the third accusation that poetry is immoral, Sidney says that poetry is like any other discipline. Some people use it in a bad way and others in a good way. This defense is a different strategy. He admits the point and says that some parts of literature are immoral and some are not. Similarly, we have an immoral philosopher, and we have an immoral poet as well.
4. To the fourth accusation, Sidney says that Plato does not banish all poets. He talks only about the effect of the immoral poet. Plato is himself a poet because he writes in a very artistic way.

This section is very important; it is  in the heart of the essay.

The Last Section: p.356 - 357

This is the practical section of the essay. It introduces the old debate about the nature of tragedies and comedies. In this section, Sidney criticizes contemporary writers who do not follow one of the important rules which comes down from the time of Greeks. This is the rule of the three unities of time, place and action. Aristotle sets it in his Act of Poetry in the fourth century B.C.  Sidney wrote the sixteenth century. The main playwright in the Renaissance was Shakespeare. Many of his plays violates the unities of time and place. Yet, he was not the only playwright who did this. It was a common phenomenon. Sidney was concerned with following the principles of Aristotle. 

Also, there was a lack of central action. Besides, he criticizes those whose works do not have a clear message. He attacks the immortality of some writers during his time. Sidney mentions some writers and works by name. He looks at the plays of his contemporaries and criticizes them according to his principles.

p. 366 " Now of time ... "

Here, Sidney is very ironical. He mentions a plot of a play in summary. Many things happen in two hours which is the period of the play. It is very absurd. Yet, writers do this all the time, contradicting all what ancient thinkers taught about writing plays. Sidney says that those, who asks how a story with many places and times can be set, forget that tragedy is literature, not history. When one writes literature, he has freedom to select specific situations and focus on them. On the other hand, historian writers should mention all the events and details. Literary writers can combine events. This is Sidney's view that these rules are important and must be followed.

Philip Sidney: "An Apology for Poetry" 

Communication Skills: Writing

Written Communication involves expressing yourself clearly, using language with precision; constructing a logical argument; note taking, editing and summarising; and writing reports.

There are three main elements to written communication

• structure (the way the content is laid out)
• style (the way it is written)
• content (what you are writing about)

Structure and layout can be relatively quickly learnt but learning how to write good quality content takes much longer.

Structuring

A good structure will help you to express yourself more clearly, whether in a dissertation, an essay, a job application letter or a CV. The following tactics may help you to structure your writing:

• Clarify your thoughts and the purpose of your communication before you start writing. In business communications, clarity is more important than style.
• Identify the key points, facts and themes
• Decide on a logical order for what you have to say
• Compose a strong introduction and ending. The first will make an immediate and positive impression on the reader; the second will remain in their mind after they have finished reading
• Use short paragraphs and sentences rather than long, rambling ones. Keep to one idea per paragraph and put your point in the first line, then add the supporting information.
• Help key points to stand out by the use of headings, sub-headings and bullet points. This will allow your reader to quickly scan your message for the main points.

Writing in a style appropriate to the audience

All good communicators should think about their readers:

"A single spelling mistake can cut online sales in half." A study by the University of Hertfordshire on over 500 companies found that poor spelling or grammar alienated 77% of the companies surveyed. The greatest attractors for employers were relevant work experience (46%), followed by a "good work ethic" (43%).

• How much information and detail will they need?
• Should you use specialist terms or should you “translate” these to make yourself understood by a generalist reader?
• How formal or informal should your writing be?
  

For example:

• A scientific paper aimed at an audience of non-scientists would have to be written in simpler and less technical language.
• A report in the Financial Times would be written in a very different style from one covering the same issue in the Sun
• A lawyer giving advice to a client would not go into the same amount of details as to legal precedents and arguments as a law student would when writing an academic essay.
• Emails sent with job applications should be treated more formally than emails to friends and family!

"Bad writers, and especially scientific, political, and sociological writers, are nearly always haunted by the notion that Latin or Greek words are grander than Saxon ones, and (use) unnecessary words like expedite, ameliorate, predict, extraneous, deracinated, clandestine, subaqueous."

Simplicity: The four basic premises of writing are clarity, brevity, simplicity, and humanity. William Zinsser Beauty of style and harmony and grace and good rhythm depend on simplicity. Plato Simplicity is the final achievement. After one has played a vast quantity of notes and more notes, it is simplicity that emerges as the crowning reward of art. Chopin Hard writing makes easy reading. Easy writing makes hard reading. William Zinsser I am sorry for the length of this letter, but I did not have the time to write a short one - Blaise Pascal. (In other words writing improves in proportion to the amount of effort put in). As a careers adviser, I can tell within 30 seconds if a CV has been worked on for 1 hour or 10 hours! See our page on simplicity in CVs

George Orwell

Checklist

Look at a piece of writing you have had to do (i.e. an essay, report or job application) and check it against the following points.

Structure (the way the content is laid out)

• Is the layout clear and easy to follow?
• Do headings stand out (e.g. are they in a larger font size)?
• Is the information arranged in a logical sequence with a beginning (introduction), middle, and end (conclusion)?
• Does the introduction clearly state the subject and purpose?
• Does it briefly summarise the content?

Style (the way it is written)

• Does it look neat, and elegant?
• Is it concise, with an exact use of words and economy of style? 
  "If in doubt, cut it out!". Learn to be laconic!
  For example instead of saying forward planning, just say planning - there is no such thing as backward planning! Words such as very, just, quite, perhaps, maybe and really should all be removed ( see"10 Words to Cut From Your Writing")
• Is is simple, direct and lucid? (See table on right)
  For example a bureaucrat would write:
  Political organisation administered directly via the populace, intended for the employment of the general community, on behalf of each and every one of the citizens of the nation. 
  Abraham Lincoln wrote:
  Government of the people, by the people, for the people.See "Flush the buzzwords" for more about this
• Are paragraphs too long?
  Paragraphs of less than 10 lines are easier to read.
• Is a blank line left between paragraphs to aid clarity?
• Are sentences too long? A sentence should contain just one idea. 

  Use single words rather than clichés: Let us have an end to such phrases as these: "it is also important to bear in mind the following considerations" .... "or consideration should be given to the possibility of carrying into effect". Most of these woolly phrases are mere padding, which can be left out altogether, or replaced by a single word. Churchill Some Kent student examples of how not to do it: Within the workplace arena = at work At this point in time = now In addition to the aforementioned = also Acquainted with = told Effective practitioner = teacher

  
  Sentences with more than 30 words should normally be split.
• Is the first sentence interesting/ Does it draw the reader in?
• Have you avoided unnecessary jargon?
• Is the style suitable for the intended audience?
  A scientific report aimed at an audience of non-scientists would have to be written in simpler and more jargon free language.
• Are bulleted lists used where appropriate?
• Have you used short, concrete, familiar words rather than long, obscure, complex words?
• Use the active words where possible rather than the passive voice? "It is recommended ...." should be replaced by "We recommend" as this is simpler and more direct
• Have you kept wordy phrases to a minimum?
• Have you avoided repetition?
• The Plain English Campaign recommends
  sans serif fonts (e.g. Arial, Verdana) such as this, as clearer and easier to read than
  serif fonts (e.g. Times New Roman, Garamond) such as this.
  

Content (what you are writing about)

Using language with precision Correct spelling, grammar and punctuation. Use your spell checker but don’t rely on it completely: a spell-checker failed to pick up the following errors: administrator in a busty office I have all the right qualities to make an excellent manger I have a long-standing interest in pubic relations I attended a fist aid course with St. John Ambulance Studied for an A-level in Art & Design at Canterbury Collage In my spare time I enjoy hiding my horse I was responsible for sock control I hope to hear from you shorty “We receive standardised letters from graduates which show no thought… They use text speak in covering letters...” Graduate Recruiter

• Have you carefully checked the spelling and punctuation?
• Have you thought through in advance what you want to say?
• Have you a clear objective?
• Have you listed the essential points you wish to make?
• Have you made these points clearly?
• Have you developed your argument in a logical way?
• Have you allowed detail to obscure the main issues?
• Is the content positive and constructive?
• Have you shown an interest in the reader by writing with warmth, sensitivity and friendliness?
• Have you edited it through several revisions, honing the text until it is just right?
• Have you left it overnight if possible: your mind will assimilate it better and you will come back with a fresh view.

The writing rules of George Orwell

• Never use a long word where a short one will do.
• If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.
• Never use the passive voice (e.g. "Bones are liked by dogs") where you can use the active voice ("Dogs like bones").
• Never use jargon if you can think of an everyday equivalent.

"Cut every page you write by one third". Hillary Mantel, author of Wolf Hall

How will employers assess your written communication skills?

Your very first contact with a prospective employer is likely to be in writing. When employers read application forms, CVs andcovering letters they are not just looking at WHAT you have to say about yourself, your skills and your experience but also at HOW you say it.

Application Forms

Application forms often ask you to write a piece of text in response to questions such as the following:

• "Please write about yourself in no more than 4000 characters [approx. 750 words].
• You may wish to mention any posts of responsibility held at school or subsequently, any regular employment or other work experience, any sporting or other achievements and any particular interests and personal qualities which are relevant). Please also state briefly why you are making this application” 
• Describe a time you were faced with a particularly difficult situation or problem. What did you do? (200 words)
• What are your interests and hobbies? What have you contributed and what do you get out of them? (no word limit, but this is the only question on one A4 page of a paper form!)

Structuring your answers, and choosing your words, carefully will help you to answer these questions effectively.
Where you have a very tight word limit, it is essential to be very concise in your answers and to avoid any non-relevant information.

Where you have a lot of space to fill, avoid the temptation to go into a lot of unnecessary detail simply in order to fill the page! Select what you are going to say, break down your answer into shorter paragraphs to make it easier for the recruiter to read and structure it into a coherent narrative. 

Where written communication is the most important part of the job, for example in journalism, public relations or technical writing, you may also be asked to submit a piece of written work along with your application. Always send something that is relevant in style and content to the employer – academic essays and dissertations are unlikely to be the best example of your writing style in this situation!

Have your spell checker set to the correct language. These pages are written in British English rather than American English and there are subtle differences between the two. For example, UK English uses an s rather than a z in words such as summarise and realise whereas US English uses z (summarize, realize). For more about these differences see our spelling test

At the interview or assessment centre stage

There may be further tests of your written communication skills such as:

In-tray/In-box exercises.

These are a form of role play in which you will be given a selection of letters, emails and reports which somebody doing the job might find in their in-tray or e-mail inbox first thing in the morning. Items may need a response such as drafting a reply to a customer complaint, writing a report, delegating tasks to colleagues or recommending action to superiors. 

Case studies

“We like to include a written test as it gives candidates an opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of the work by giving them a case study and then asking them to pull out the main issues, such as risk, analysis and planning ideas, legislative framework etc. You should never be tested on anything that is not included in the person specification for the job”.
(Social work recruiter)

“You will be presented with a file of papers which provide information from different sources on three fictitious projects, each of which is being considered by the government as a solution to a specific problem. Your task is to analyse the papers and prepare a note which builds a balanced and convincing case for one of the three projects. To do this you will need to compare and contrast the options, using the stated criteria, and explain convincingly the reasons for your recommendation”.
(Civil Service Fast Stream) 

“I was given 15 minutes to read through what the employer described as “the world’s worst-written press release” (a fictitious example!), mark it up and note the mistakes.”
(Marketing candidate)

“You will have 30 minutes to read the exercise briefing materials and prepare a written report on the given subject. This exercise is designed to assess your ability to produce written reports to an appropriate standard. Your report will be assessed on the basis of your application of structure; use of clear, concise language; and logical and coherent presentation”.
(PricewaterhouseCoopers)

How to Improve Your Writing Skills

Method 1 of 4: Better Writing Basics

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   Be active instead of passive. One of the most common manifestations of bad writing is overuse of the passive voice. The passive voice makes the object of an action into the subject of the sentence with verb forms like "X had been attacked by Y" instead of simply "Y attacked X." Learn to avoid these constructions as much as you can.^[1]
   • "The novel had been written by Frank while he was in college" is passive. "Frank wrote the novel while he was in college" is active.
   • Using the passive voice isn't always bad. Sometimes there is no clear way to make a statement active, or sometimes you want the lighter touch a passive construction allows. But learn to follow this rule before you start making exceptions.
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   Use strong words. Good writing is precise, evocative and spiced with the unexpected. Finding the right verb or adjective can turn an uninspired sentence into one people will remember and quote for years to come. Look for words that are as specific as possible. Try not to repeat the same word over and over unless you are trying to build a rhythm with it.
   • One exception to this is the words used to describe dialogue. Bad writing is filled with "he commented" and "she responded." A well-placed "sputtered" can work wonders, but most of the time a simple "said" will do. It may feel awkward to use the word "said" over and over, but changing it up unnecessarily makes it harder for your readers to get into the back-and-forth flow of the conversation. When writing dialogue, you want readers to hear your characters' voices, not your own.
   • Strong doesn't mean obscure, or more complicated. Don't say "utilize" when you could say "use." "He sprinted" is not necessarily better than "he ran." If you have a really good opportunity to use "ameliorate," go for it—unless "ease" is just as good there.
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   Cut the chaff. Good writing is simple, clear and direct. You don't get points for saying in 50 words what could be said in 20. Good writing is about using the right words, not filling up the page. It might feel good at first to pack a lot of ideas and details into a single sentence, but chances are that sentence is just going to be hard to read. If a phrase doesn't add anything valuable, just cut it.
   • Adverbs are the classic crutch of mediocre writing. A well-placed adverb can be delightful, but much of the time the adverbs we use are already implied by the verb or adjective—or would be if we had chosen a more evocative word. Don't write "screamed fearfully";"scream" already suggests fear. If you notice that your writing is filled with "-ly" words, it might be time to take a deep breath and give your writing more focus.
   • Sometimes cutting the chaff is best done at the editing stage. You don't have to obsess about finding the most concise way to phrase every sentence; get your ideas down on paper however you can and then go through to edit out unnecessary verbiage.
   • Your writing doesn't just exist in a vacuum—it's experienced in conjunction with the reader's imagination. You don't need to describe every detail if a few good ones can spur the reader's mind to fill in the rest. Lay down well-placed dots and let the reader connect them.
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   Show don't tell. Instead of just sitting your readers down for a long exposition explaining a character's background or a plot-point's significance, try to let the readers discover the same ideas through the words, feelings and actions of your characters. Especially in fiction, putting this classic piece of writing advice into practice is one of the most powerful lessons a writer can learn.^[2]
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   Avoid clichés. Clichés are phrases, ideas or situations which are patently unoriginal. They may have been powerful at one point, but now they have been overused to the point of having little value unless re-imagined in some creative way. It's hard to say exactly what makes a cliché, other than that, as with pornography, you'll know it when you see it.
   • "It was a dark and stormy night" is a classic example of a clichéd phrase—even now a clichéd concept. Compare these similar weather-related opening lines:^[3]
     • “It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen.”—1984, by George Orwell. It's not dark, nor stormy, nor night. But you can tell right from the start something's not quite right in 1984.
     • “The sky above the port was the color of television, tuned to a dead channel.”—Neuromancer, by William Gibson, in the same book that gave us the word "cyberspace." This not only gives you the weather report, it does so in such a way that you are immediately placed into his dystopian world.
     • “It was the day my grandmother exploded.”— The Crow Road, by Iain Banks.
     • "“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way—in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only.”—A Tale of Two Cities, by Charles Dickens. Weather, emotion, damnation, and despair—Dickens covered it all with an opening line that leaves the reader ready for anything.
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   Break the rules. The best writers don't just follow the rules—they know when and how to break them. Everything from traditional grammar to the writing advice above is up for grabs if you know a transgression will improve your piece. The key is that you have to write well enough the rest of the time that it's clear you are breaking the rule knowingly and on purpose.
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   Edit, edit, edit. Don't believe your English teachers: there is no such thing as a "perfect" masterpiece in writing. Every author could have found something to change in even their greatest works if they had given it another once over. Editing is one of the most essential parts of writing. Once you finish a piece of writing, let it sit for a day and then read it over with fresh eyes, catching typos or scrapping whole paragraphs—anything to make your piece better. Then when you are done, give it another read, and another.

Method 2 of 4: Consume the Written Word Voraciously

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   Pick up a good book or ten. Read and understand the works of great and influential writers to learn what is possible with the written word. By immersing yourself in writers who have given us the world's the most compelling stories and ideas, you will expand your vocabulary, build knowledge and feed your imagination.^[4]
   • Look for different ways of organizing a piece of writing or presenting a narrative.
   • Try comparing different author's approaches to the same subject to see how they are alike and how they differ. For example, Tolstoy's Death of Ivan Ilych, and Hemingway's The Snows of Kilimanjaro.
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   Map the allusions that run through our culture. You might not realize it, but books, movies and other media are filled with references and homages to great literature. By reading some classics, you will build a body of cultural knowledge that will better inform your own writing.
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   Make sure you understand why a classic work is considered great. It's possible to read a novel like The Catcher in the Rye and not "get it" or see its value immediately. If this happens, try reading an essay or two about the piece to learn why it was so influential and effective. You may discover layers of meaning that you missed. Understanding what makes great writing great is one of the best ways to grow your own skills.
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   Attend the theatre. Yes, watching a play is passive—like television or the movies—and there's not a bit of reading involved. But it will fire your imagination in ways you might not expect.
   • More than a movie ever can be, a theatrical performance is like words come to life, with only the director's interpretation and the actor's delivery as filters between the author's pen and your ears.
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   Read magazines, newspapers, and everything else. Literature isn't the only place to get ideas—the real world is filled with fascinating people, places and events that will inspire your writerly mind.
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   Know when to put down your influences. It happens all the time: you finish an awesome novel, and it leaves you fired up to get cracking on your own writing. But when you sit down at your desk, your words come out sounding unoriginal, like an imitation of the author you were just reading. For all you can learn from great writers, you need to be able to develop your own voice. Learn to cleanse your palate of influences with a free writing exercise, a review of your past works, or even just a meditative jog.

Method 3 of 4: Write Voluminously

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   Buy a notebook. Not just any notebook, but a good sturdy one you can take with you anywhere. Ideas happen anywhere, and you want to be able to capture those oft-fleeting ideas before they escape you like that dream you had the other night about...um...it was...uh...well it was really good at the time!
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   Write down any ideas that come to you. Titles, subtitles, topics, characters, situations, phrases, metaphors—anything that will spark your imagination later when you're ready.
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   Fill up your notebook and keep going. When you finish a notebook, put a label on it with the date range and any general notes, so you can refer back to it when you need a creative kick in the pants.
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   Join a writing workshop. One of the best ways to improve your writing and stay motivated is to talk with others and get feedback on your work. Find a local or online writing group. In these groups members usually read each other's writing and discuss what they liked, didn't like and how a piece might be improved. You may find that offering feedback, as well as receiving it, helps you learn valuable lessons to build your skills.
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   Write every day. Keep a diary, mail a pen pal, or just set aside an hour or so for free writing. Just pick a topic and start writing. The topic itself doesn't matter—the idea is to write. And write. And write some more. Writing is a skill that takes practice, and a muscle that you can strengthen and nourish with the right training.

Method 4 of 4: Crafting a Story

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   Pick a topic and lay out a general arc for your story. It doesn't have to be complex, just a way to get your head around the direction of the plot. For example, that classic Hollywood story line: boy meets girl, boy gets girl, boy loses girl, boy gets girl back again. (The chase scenes are added later.)
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   Write an outline. It can be tempting to just start writing and try to figure out twists and turns of your plot as you go along. Don't do it! Even a simple outline will help you see the big picture and save you hours of rewriting. Start with a basic arc and expand section by section. Flesh out your story, populating it with at least the main characters, locations, time period, and mood.
   • Note that in an outline like this, you discover that of the 4 sections, the last one will take up the bulk of the story. When you have part of an outline that will take more than a few words to describe, create a sub-outline to break that section into manageable parts.
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   Write the first draft. You're now ready to start your "sloppy copy," otherwise known as your first draft! Using your outline, flesh out the characters and the narrative.
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   Keep some space in your story outline to add characters, and what makes them who they are. Give each of them a little story of their own, and even if you don't add that info into your story, it will give a sense of how your character might act in a given situation.
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   Don't be afraid to hop around. If you suddenly have a brilliant idea about how to resolve a situation near the end, but you're still on Chapter 1, write it down! Never let an idea go to waste.
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   Let your story guide you. Let your story have its say, and you may find yourself heading in unexpected, but very interesting directions. You're still the director, but stay open to inspiration.
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   Finish your first draft. Don't get caught up in fine tuning things yet, just let the story play out on paper. If you realize 2/3 of the way through the story that a character is really the Ambassador to Dubai, make a note, and finish the story with her as the Ambassador. Don't go back and start re-writing her part till you're done with the first draft.
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   Write it again. First draft, remember? Now you get to write it from the beginning, this time knowing all the details of your story that will make your characters much more real and believable. Now you know why he's on that airplane, and why she is dressed like a punk.
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   Write it through to the end. By the time you are done with the second draft, you will have all the information about your story, your characters, the main plot, and the subplots defined.
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    Read and share your story. Now that you've finished the second draft, it's time to read it—dispassionately, if possible, so that you can at least try to be objective. Share it with a couple trusted friends whose opinions you respect.
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    Write the final draft. Armed with notes from your reading the story, plus notes of your friends or publishers, go through your story one more time, finalizing as you go. Tie up loose ends, resolve conflicts, eliminate any characters that do not add to the story